Detailed 11 to 20 - Question and Answers on COVID-19 (Corona Virus) By National Health Mission (Karnataka) - Part 2

 These are "Detailed  11 to 20 - Question and Answers on COVID-19 (Corona Virus)" By National Health Mission (Karnataka) - Part 2 for spreading awareness to improve good health of people.

Q11. How likely am I to catch COVID-19? 

Ans. - The risk depends on where you are - and more specifically, whether there is a COVID-19 outbreak unfolding there. 

- For most people in most locations the risk of catching COVID-19 is still low. However, there are now places around the world (cities or areas) where the disease is spreading. 

- For people living in, or visiting, these areas the risk of catching COVID-19 is higher. Governments and health authorities are taking vigorous action every time a new case of COVID-19 is identified. 

- Be sure to comply with any local restrictions on travel, movement or large gatherings. 

- Cooperating with disease control efforts will reduce your risk of catching or spreading COVID-19. COVID-19 outbreaks can be contained and transmission stopped, as has been shown in China and some other countries. Unfortunately, new outbreaks can emerge rapidly. 

- It’s important to be aware of the situation where you are or intend to go. 

Q.12. Should I worry about COVID-19? 

Ans. - Illness due to COVID-19 infection is generally mild, especially for children and young adults. 

- However, it can cause serious illness: about 1 in every 5 people who catch it need hospital care. 

- It is therefore quite normal for people to worry about how the COVID-19 outbreak will affect them and their loved ones. 

- We can channel our concerns into actions to protect ourselves, our loved ones and our communities. 

- First and foremost among these actions is regular and thorough hand-washing and good respiratory hygiene. 

- Secondly, keep informed and follow the advice of the local health authorities including any restrictions put in place on travel, movement and gatherings.

Q.13. Who is at risk of developing severe illness?

Ans. - While we are still learning about how COVID-2019 affects people, older persons and persons with pre-existing medical conditions (such as high blood pressure, heart disease, lung disease, cancer or diabetes) appear to develop serious illness more often than others.

Q.14. Are antibiotics effective in preventing or treating the COVID-19?

Ans. - No. Antibiotics do not work against viruses, they only work on bacterial infections. 

- COVID-19 is caused by a virus, so antibiotics do not work. Antibiotics should not be used as a means of prevention or treatment of COVID-19. 

- They should only be used as directed by a physician to treat a bacterial infection.

Q.15. Are there any medicines or therapies that can prevent or cure COVID-19?

Ans. - While some western, traditional or home remedies may provide comfort and alleviate symptoms of COVID-19, there is no evidence that current medicine can prevent or cure the disease. 

- We does not recommend self-medication with any medicines, including antibiotics, as a prevention or cure for COVID-19. 

- However, there are several ongoing clinical trials that include both western and traditional medicines. 

- We will continue to provide updated information as soon as clinical findings are available.

Q.16. Is COVID-19 the same as SARS? 

Ans. - No. The virus that causes COVID-19 and the one that caused the outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in 2003 are related to each other genetically, but the diseases they cause are quite different. 

- SARS was more deadly but much less infectious than COVID-19. There have been no outbreaks of SARS anywhere in the world since 2003.

Q.17. How to put on use take off and dispose of a mask? 

Ans. 1. Remember, a mask should only be used by health workers, care takers, and individuals with respiratory symptoms, such as fever and cough. 

2. Before touching the mask, clean hands with an alcohol-based hand rub or soap and water 

3. Take the mask and inspect it for tears or holes. 

4. Orient which side is the top side (where the metal strip is). 

5. Ensure the proper side of the mask faces outwards (the coloured side). 

6. Place the mask to your face. Pinch the metal strip or stiff edge of the mask so it moulds to the shape of your nose. 

7. Pull down the mask’s bottom so it covers your mouth and your chin. 

8. After use, take off the mask; remove the elastic loops from behind the ears while keeping the mask away from your face and clothes, to avoid touching potentially contaminated surfaces of the mask. 

9. Discard the mask in a closed bin immediately after use. 

10. Perform hand hygiene after touching or discarding the mask – Use alcohol-based hand rub or, if visibly soiled, wash your hands with soap and water.

Q.18. How long is the incubation period for COVID-19? 

Ans. - The “incubation period” means the time between catching the virus and beginning to have symptoms of the disease. 

- Most estimates of the incubation period for COVID-19 range from 1-14 days, most commonly around five days. 

- These estimates will be updated as more data become available.

Q.19. Can humans become infected with the COVID-19 from an animal source? 

Ans. - Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses that are common in animals. 

- Occasionally, people get infected with these viruses which may then spread to other people. 

- For example, SARS-CoV was associated with civet cats and MERS-CoV is transmitted by dromedary camels. 

- Possible animal sources of COVID-19 have not yet been confirmed. 

- To protect yourself, such as when visiting live animal markets, avoid direct contact with animals and surfaces in contact with animals. 

- Ensure good food safety practices at all times. 

- Handle raw meat, milk or animal organs with care to avoid contamination of uncooked foods and avoid consuming raw or undercooked animal products.

Q.20. Can I catch COVID-19 from my pet? 

Ans. - While there has been one instance of a dog being infected in Hong Kong, to date, there is no evidence that a dog, cat or any pet can transmit COVID-19. 

- COVID-19 is mainly spread through droplets produced when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or speaks. 

- To protect yourself, clean your hands frequently and thoroughly. 

- We continues to monitor the latest research on this and other COVID19 topics and will update as new findings are available.

Question and Answers on COVID-19 Part 1..  2..

MCQs on Covid 19 Part 1 

Detailed 10 Question and Answers on COVID-19 (Corona Virus) By National Health Mission (Karnataka) - Part 1

 These are Detailed Question and  Answers on COVID-19 (Corona Virus) for spreading awareness to improve good health of people.

Q.1. What is corona virus?

Ans. - Corona viruses are a large family of viruses which may cause illness in animals or humans. 

- In humans, several coronaviruses are known to cause respiratory infections ranging from the common cold to more

- severe diseases such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). 

- The most recently discovered coronavirus causes coronavirus disease COVID-19.

Q.2.What is COVID-19?

Ans. - COVID-19 is the infectious disease caused by the most recently discovered corona virus. 

- This new virus and disease were unknown before the outbreak began in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. 

Q.3. What are the symptoms of COVID-19?

Ans. - The most common symptoms of COVID-19 are fever, tiredness, and dry cough. 

- Some patients may have aches and pains, nasal congestion, runny nose, sore throat or diarrhea. 

- These symptoms are usually mild and begin gradually. 

- Some people become infected but don’t develop any symptoms and don't feel unwell. 

- Most people (about 80%) recover from the disease without needing special

treatment. 

- Around 1 out of every 6 people who gets COVID-19 becomes seriously ill and develops difficulty breathing. 

- Older people, and those with underlying medical problems like high blood pressure, heart problems or diabetes, are more likely to develop serious illness. 

- People with fever, cough and difficulty breathing should seek medical attention.  

Q.4. How does COVID-19 spread?

Ans. - People can catch COVID-19 from others who have the virus. 

- The disease can spread from person to person through small droplets from the nose or mouth which are spread when a person with COVID-19 coughs or exhales. 

- These droplets land on objects and surfaces around the person. 

- Other people then catch COVID-19 by touching these objects or surfaces, then touching their eyes, nose or mouth.

- People can also catch COVID-19 if they breathe in droplets from a person with COVID-19 who coughs out or exhales droplets. 

- This is why it is important to stay more than 1 meter (3 feet) away from a person who is sick.

Q.5. Can the virus that causes COVID-19 be transmitted through the air?

Ans.  - Studies to date suggest that the virus that causes COVID-19 is mainly transmitted through contact with respiratory droplets rather than through the air. 

- See previous answer on “How does COVID-19 spread?”

Q.6. Can CoVID-19 be caught from a person who has no symptoms?

Ans. - The main way the disease spreads is through respiratory droplets expelled by someone who is coughing.  

- The risk of catching COVID-19 from someone with no symptoms at all is very low. 

- However, many people with COVID-19 experience only mild symptoms. 

- This is particularly true at the early stages of the disease. 

- It is therefore possible to catch COVID-19 from someone who has, for example, just a mild cough and does not feel ill. 

Q.7. Can I catch COVID-19 from the feces of someone with the disease?

Ans. - The risk of catching COVID-19 from the feces of an infected person appears to be low. 

- While initial investigations suggest the virus may be present in feces in some cases, spread through this route is not a main feature of the outbreak. 

- The ongoing research on the ways COVID-19 is spread and will continue to share new findings. 

- Because this is a risk, however, it is another reason to clean hands regularly, after using the bathroom and before eating. 

Q.8. What can I do to protect myself and prevent the spread of disease ?

Ans.  - Protection measures for everyone:

- Stay aware of the latest information on the COVID-19 outbreak, available on the national,state and local public health authority. 

- Many countries around the world have seen cases of COVID-19 and several have seen outbreaks.

-  Authorities in China and some other countries have succeeded in slowing or stopping their outbreaks. 

- However, the situation is unpredictable so check regularly for the latest news.

Q.9. How can we reduce your chances of being infected or spreading COVID19 by taking some simple precautions?

Ans.  - You can reduce your chances of being infected or spreading COVID19 by taking some simple precautions: 

=>  Regularly and thoroughly clean your hands with an alcoholbased hand rub or wash them with soap and water. 

Why? Washing your hands with soap and water or using alcohol-based hand rub kills viruses that may be on your hands. 

=> Maintain at least 1 metre (3 feet) distance between yourself and anyone who is coughing or sneezing. 

Why? When someone coughs or sneezes they spray small liquid droplets from their nose or mouth which may contain virus. 

- If you are too close, you can breathe in the droplets, including the COVID-19 virus if the person coughing has the disease. 

=> Avoid touching eyes, nose and mouth. 

Why? Hands touch many surfaces and can pick up viruses. Once contaminated, hands can transfer the virus to your eyes, nose or mouth. 

From there, the virus can enter your body and can make you sick. 

=> Make sure you, and the people around you, follow good respiratory hygiene. 

- This means covering your mouth and nose with your bent elbow or tissue when you cough or sneeze.Then dispose of the used tissue immediately. 

- Why? Droplets spread virus. By following good respiratory hygiene you protect the people around you from viruses such as cold, flu and COVID-19. 

=> Stay home if you feel unwell. If you have a fever, cough and difficulty breathing, seek medical attention and call in advance. Follow the directions of your local health authority. 

- Why? National and local authorities will have the most up to date information on the situation in your area. Calling in advance will allow your health care provider to quickly direct you to the right health facility. 

- This will also protect you and help prevent spread of viruses and other infections. 

=> Keep up to date on the latest COVID-19 hotspots (cities or local areas where COVID-19 is spreading widely). If possible, avoid traveling to places – especially if you are an older person or have diabetes, heart or lung disease. 

- Why? You have a higher chance of catching COVID-19 in one of these areas.

Q.10. What are Protection measures for persons who are in or have recently visited (past 14 days) areas where COVID-19 is spreading?

Ans. - Follow the guidance outlined above (Protection measures for everyone) 

=> Self-isolate by staying at home if you begin to feel unwell, even with mild symptoms such as headache, low grade fever (37.3 C or above) and slight runny nose, until you recover. 

- If it is essential for you to have someone bring you supplies or to go out, e.g. to buy food, then wear a mask to avoid infecting other people. 

- Why? Avoiding contact with others and visits to medical facilities will allow these facilities to operate more effectively and help protect you and others from possible COVID-19 and other viruses. 

=> If you develop fever, cough and difficulty breathing, seek medical advice promptly as this may be due to a respiratory infection or other serious condition. 

- Call in advance and tell your provider of any recent travel or contact with travelers. 

- Why? Calling in advance will allow your health care provider to quickly direct you to the right health facility. This will also help to prevent possible spread of COVID-19 and other viruses.

Question and Answers on COVID-19 Part 1..  2..

MCQs on Covid 19 Part 1

Corona Virus (Covid-19) Online MCQs Part 1

The virus that causes COVID-19 is in a family of viruses called Coronaviridae.
Antibiotics do not work against viruses.
These are MCQs on "Corona Virology" for Entrance examination like CBSE NEET etc.

1. Examples of DNA viruses include:

1. Coronaviruses.
2. Varicella zoster virus (VZV).
3. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).
4. Influenzavirus.
5. Cytomegalovirus (CMV).

2. How does Corona virus transmit?

1. When a person sneezes or cough, droplets spread in the air or fall on the ground and nearby surfaces.
2. If another person is nearby and inhales the droplets or touches these surfaces and further touches his face, eyes or mouth, he or she can get an infection.
3. If the distance is less than 1 meter from the infected person.
4. All the above are correct.




Coronavirus (COVID-19) transmits through the above-mentioned options.

Chapter 1 ( The living world ) - MCQs - Biology Class 11th

These are MCQs on Chapter 1 ( The living world ) in biology. Solve biology mcqs to increase your knowledge for examinations like CBSE Board, NEET, CSIR NET etc.

1. As we go from species to kingdom in a taxonomic hierarchy, the number of common characteristics

• Will decrease
• Will increase
• Remain same
• May increase or decrease

2. Which of the following ‘suffixes’ used for units of classification in plants indicates a taxonomic category of ‘family’.

• -Ales
• -Onae
• -Aceae
• -Ae

Bioinformatics MCQs Part 16

1. Which of the following model account for nucleotide substitutions?

• Jukes-Cantor
• Kimuras
• Complex
• Option a,b and c

2. Which method is used for predicting protein tertiary structure in the absence of homology to a known structure?

• Comparative modeling
• Abinitio prediction
• Threading
• Surface modeling

Bioinformatics MCQs Part 15

1. Energy minimization of a modeled protein can be done using _______.

• ChemSketch
• Moldraw
• RasMol
• Swiss-PDB Viewer

2. Which tool can be used for viewing molecular structures and animating molecular trajectories?

• Chimera
• QMol
• Arguslab
• ChemSketch

Bioinformatics MCQs Part 14

1. A bifurcating branch point in the phylogenetic tree is known as ______.

• Node
• Clade
• Branch
• Taxon

2. Bootstrapping repeats the phylogenetic analysis several times, each time reshuffling the columns of the initial alignment, in order to _______.

• build a consensus tree, where the number of times each branch reforms is counted and used to estimate its probability.
• Generate a random model from which to benchmark phylogenetic data.
• Produce a graphical representation of the tree.
• Assess the probability that the sequences in the alignment are unrelated.

Bioinformatics MCQs Part 13

1. A _______ is defined in SCOP as a collection of superfamilies.

• primary structure of protein
• secondary structure of protein
• protein fold
• mutated protein sequences

2. DDD stands for ________.

• Dali Domain Dictionary.
• Distance Matrix Alignment Server.
• Distance Matrix Domain Dictionar.
• Distance Domain Dictionary.

How much salary did Bioinformatician get?

Students, who Studied Bioinformatics, wants to know "How much salary did Bioinformatician get?". Also Bioinformatics professional can get right value if they work in right place.

It creates awareness and curiosity in working in bioinformatics. Let us know more about it below.

Salaries of Bioinformaticians in Past were as follow:

Salary of a Bioinformatician in India:

- Starting with a package of Rs 12,000 to Rs 15,000, you can expect Rs 20,000 with a couple of years of experience under your belt. 

-In fact, the acute shortage of experts in the field has given rise to active poaching of scientists from premier research institutions. 

-The going price for bioinformaticians with a year’s experience is upwards of Rs 50,000 per month.

Salary of a Bioinformatician in Abroad Countries: 

Starting salaries in the USA range between $60,000 and $ 90,000 for professionals with a couple of years of experience.

Average salaries in biotech and pharmaceutical companies are as follows:

Clinical Research:

* Associate: $51,500 

*Senior associate: $65,000 

*Manager: $85,000 

*Clinical research physician: $90,000200,000 

*Senior laboratory technician: $34,000 

*Junior laboratory technician: $21,715

Biostatistics:

*MS entry-level: $74,500 

*PhD entry-level: $110,000

Regulatory Affairs:

*Associate: $52,000 

*Senior associate: $76,000

Scientist:

In 1999, average earnings of scientists employed by the federal government were:

*General biologists: $56,000 

*Microbiologists: $62,600 

*Physiologists: $71,300 

*Geneticists: $68,200

Persons with Degrees in biological science:

Average salary offers in 1999 for those with degrees in biological science were:

*BS: $29,000 

*MS: $34,450 

*PhD: $45,700

Median earnings in industries employing the greatest number of biological and medical scientists in 1997 were:

*Federal government: $48,600 

*Pharmaceuticals: $46,300 

*Research and testing services: $40,800 

*State government: $38,000

This data motivates students of bioinformatics to work creatively with smart hard-work to gain high package in bioinformatics industry.

Problems of developing bioinformatics sector in india

There are many Problems of  developing bioinformatics  sector in india for bioinformatics professionals, science graduates in biology related field. 

Developing skills of bioinformatics are major problems in bioinformatics trainee, students, or students/working professionals with pure biology background. 

Problems of developing bioinformatics sector in India are:

- The major issue for India is its transition from a recognized global leader in software development to areas of real strength upon which it can capitalize in the biosciences. 

- The identifiable areas are in computation biology and bioinformatics, where a substantial level of development skills are required to develop custom applications to knot together and integrate disparate databases (usually from several global locations), simulations, molecular images, docking programs etc. 

- The industry people, meanwhile, say that the mushrooming of bioinformatic institutes is creating a problem of finding talented and trained individuals in this industry. 

- While many of them have a superficial knowledge and a certificate, India lacks true professionals in this area. 

- Most people, who opt for bioinformatics are from the life sciences areas that do not have exposure to the IT side of bioinformatics, which is very important. 

- Another issue is that some companies face shortage of funds and infrastructure. 

- The turn around time for an average biotech industry to break even would be around three to five years. 

- Most of the venture capitals and other sources of funding would not be very supportive, especially if the company is not part of a larger group venture.

- It would help if the government would take an active role in building infrastructure and funding small and medium entrepreneurs.

Top 20 Applications of Bioinformatics

These are "Top 20 Applications of Bioinformatics ".
These application areas of bioinformatics are very vast to explore to find solution of biological problems, generating curiosity for bioinformatics professionals and computational biologists.

Top 20 Applications of Bioinformatics are: 

1. Molecular medicine:

- The human genome will have profound effects on the fields of biomedical research and clinical medicine.
- Every disease has a genetic component. This may be inherited (as is the case with an estimated 3000-4000 hereditary disease including Cystic Fibrosis and Huntingtons disease) or a result of the body's response to an environmental stress which causes alterations in the genome (e.g. cancers, heart disease, diabetes.).
- The completion of the human genome means that we can search for the genes directly associated with different diseases and begin to understand the molecular basis of these diseases more clearly.
-This new knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of disease will enable better treatments, cures and even preventative tests to be developed.

2. Personalised medicine:

- Clinical medicine will become more personalised with the development of the field of pharmacogenomics.
- This is the study of how an individual's genetic inheritance affects the body's response to drugs.
-  At present, some drugs fail to make it to the market because a small percentage of the clinical patient population show adverse affects to a drug due to sequence variants in their DNA. As a result, potentially life saving drugs never makes it to the marketplace.
- Today, doctors have to use trial and error to find the best drug to treat a particular patient as those with the same clinical symptoms can show a wide range of responses to the same treatment.
- In the future, doctors will be able to analyse a patient's genetic profile and prescribe the best available drug therapy and dosage from the beginning.

3. Preventative medicine:

- With the specific details of the genetic mechanisms of diseases being unraveled, the development of diagnostic tests to measure a persons susceptibility to different diseases may become a distinct reality.
- Preventative actions such as change of lifestyle or having treatment at the earliest possible stages when they are more likely to be successful, could result in huge advances in our struggle to conquer disease.

4. Gene therapy:

- In the not too distant future, the potential for using genes themselves to treat disease may become a reality.
- Gene therapy is the approach used to treat, cure or even prevent disease by changing the expression of a person’s genes.
- Currently, this field is in its infantile stage with clinical trials for many different types of cancer and other diseases ongoing.

5. Drug development:

- At present all drugs on the market target only about 500 proteins.
- With an improved understanding of disease mechanisms and using computational tools to identify and validate new drug targets, more specific medicines that act on the cause, not merely the symptoms, of the disease can be developed.
- These highly specific drugs promise to have fewer side effects than many of today's medicines.

6. Microbial genome applications:

- Microorganisms are ubiquitous, that is they are found everywhere. They have been found surviving and thriving in extremes of heat, cold, radiation, salt, acidity and pressure.
- They are present in the environment, our bodies, the air, food and water. Traditionally, use has been made of a variety of microbial properties in the baking, brewing and food industries.
- The arrival of the complete genome sequences and their potential to provide a greater insight into the microbial world and its capacities could have broad and far reaching implications for environment, health, energy and industrial applications.
- For these reasons, in 1994, the US Department of Energy (DOE) initiated the MGP (Microbial Genome Project) to sequence genomes of bacteria useful in energy production, environmental cleanup, industrial processing and toxic waste reduction.
- By studying the genetic material of these organisms, scientists can begin to understand these microbes at a very fundamental level and isolate the genes that give them their unique abilities to survive under extreme conditions.

7. Waste cleanup:
- Deinococcus radiodurans is known as the world's toughest bacteria and it is the most radiation resistant organism known.
- Scientists are interested in this organism because of its potential usefulness in cleaning up waste sites that contain radiation and toxic chemicals.

8. Climate change Studies:

- Increasing levels of carbon dioxide emission, mainly through the expanding use of fossil fuels for energy, are thought to contribute to global climate change. Recently, the DOE (Department of Energy, USA) launched a program to decrease atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.
- One method of doing so is to study the genomes of microbes that use carbon dioxide as their sole carbon source.

9. Alternative energy sources:

- Scientists are studying the genome of the microbe Chlorobium tepidum which has an unusual capacity for generating energy from light

10. Biotechnology:

- The archaeon Archaeoglobus fulgidus and the bacterium Thermotoga maritima have potential for practical applications in industry and government-funded environmental remediation.
- These microorganisms thrive in water temperatures above the boiling point and therefore may provide the DOE, the Department of Defence, and private companies with heat-stable enzymes suitable for use in industrial processes.
- Other industrially useful microbes include, Corynebacterium glutamicum which is of high industrial interest as a research object because it is used by the chemical industry for the biotechnological production of the amino acid lysine.
- The substance is employed as a source of protein in animal nutrition. Lysine is one of the essential amino acids in animal nutrition.
- Biotechnologically produced lysine is added to feed concentrates as a source of protein, and is an alternative to soybeans or meat and bonemeal.
- Xanthomonas campestris pv. is grown commercially to produce the exopolysaccharide xanthan gum, which is used as a viscosifying and stabilising agent in many industries.
- Lactococcus lactis is one of the most important micro-organisms involved in the dairy industry, it is a non-pathogenic rod-shaped bacterium that is critical for manufacturing dairy products like buttermilk, yogurt and cheese.
- This bacterium, Lactococcus lactis ssp., is also used to prepare pickled vegetables, beer, wine, some bread and sausages and other fermented foods. Researchers anticipate that understanding the physiology and genetic make-up of this bacterium will prove invaluable for food manufacturers as well as the pharmaceutical industry, which is exploring the capacity of L. lactis to serve as a vehicle for delivering drugs.

11. Antibiotic resistance:

- Scientists have been examining the genome of Enterococcus faecalis-a leading cause of bacterial infection among hospital patients.
- They have discovered a virulence region made up of a number of antibiotic-resistant genes that may contribute to the bacterium's transformation from a harmless gut bacteria to a menacing invader.
- The discovery of the region, known as a pathogenicity island, could provide useful markers for detecting pathogenic strains and help to establish controls to prevent the spread of infection in wards.

12. Forensic analysis of microbes:

- Scientists used their genomic tools to help distinguish between the strain of Bacillus anthryacis that was used in the summer of 2001 terrorist attack in Florida with that of closely related anthrax strains

13. The reality of bioweapon creation:

- Scientists have recently built the virus poliomyelitis using entirely artificial means.
- They did this using genomic data available on the Internet and materials from a mail-order chemical supply.
- The research was financed by the US Department of Defense as part of a biowarfare response program to prove to the world the reality of bioweapons. The researchers also hope their work will discourage officials from ever relaxing programs of immunisation.
- This project has been met with very mixed feelings

14. Evolutionary studies:

- The sequencing of genomes from all three domains of life, eukaryota, bacteria and archaea means that evolutionary studies can be performed in a quest to determine the tree of life and the last universal common ancestor.

15. Crop improvement:

- Comparative genetics of the plant genomes has shown that the organisation of their genes has remained more conserved over evolutionary time than was previously believed.
- These findings suggest that information obtained from the model crop systems can be used to suggest improvements to other food crops.
- At present the complete genomes of Arabidopsis thaliana (water cress) and Oryza sativa (rice) are available.

16. Insect resistance:

- Genes from Bacillus thuringiensis that can control a number of serious pests have been successfully transferred to cotton, maize and potatoes.
- This new ability of the plants to resist insect attack means that the amount of insecticides being used can be reduced and hence the nutritional quality of the crops is increased.

17. Improve nutritional quality:

- Scientists have recently succeeded in transferring genes into rice to increase levels of Vitamin A, iron and other micronutrients.
- This work could have a profound impact in reducing occurrences of blindness and anaemia caused by deficiencies in Vitamin A and iron respectively.
- Scientists have inserted a gene from yeast into the tomato, and the result is a plant whose fruit stays longer on the vine and has an extended shelf life.

18. Development of Drought resistance varieties:

-Progress has been made in developing cereal varieties that have a greater tolerance for soil alkalinity, free aluminium and iron toxicities.
-These varieties will allow agriculture to succeed in poorer soil areas, thus adding more land to the global production base.
-Research is also in progress to produce crop varieties capable of tolerating reduced water conditions.

19. Vetinary Science:

Sequencing projects of many farm animals including cows, pigs and sheep are now well under way in the hope that a better understanding of the biology of these organisms will have huge impacts for improving the production and health of livestock and ultimately have benefits for human nutrition.

20. Comparative Studies:

- Analysing and comparing the genetic material of different species is an important method for studying the functions of genes, the mechanisms of inherited diseases and species evolution.
- Bioinformatics tools can be used to make comparisons between the numbers, locations and biochemical functions of genes in different organisms.
- Organisms that are suitable for use in experimental research are termed model organisms.
- They have a number of properties that make them ideal for research purposes including short life spans, rapid reproduction, being easy to handle, inexpensive and they can be manipulated at the genetic level.

An example of a human model organism is the mouse. Mouse and human are very closely related (>98%) and for the most part we see a one to one correspondence between genes in the two species.
- Manipulation of the mouse at the molecular level and genome comparisons between the two species can and is revealing detailed information on the functions of human genes, the evolutionary relationship between the two species and the molecular mechanisms of many human diseases.

7 Bioinformatics Projects

These are 7 Bioinformatics Projects being developed continuously by developers
to increase working efficiency of Bioinformatics Professionals and computational Biologist.

7 Bioinformatics Projects are:

1. BioJava:

The BioJava Project is dedicated to providing Java tools for processing biological data which includes objects for manipulating sequences, dynamic programming, file parsers, simple statistical routines, etc.

2. BioPerl:

The BioPerl project is an international association of developers of Perl tools for bioinformatics and provides an online resource for modules, scripts and web links for developers of Perl-based software.

3. BioXML:

A part of the BioPerl project, this is a resource to gather XML documentation, DTDs and XML aware tools for biology in one location.

4. Biocorba:

- Interface objects have facilitated interoperability between bioperl and other perl packages such as Ensembl and the Annotation Workbench.
- However, interoperability between bioperl and packages written in other languages requires additional support software.
- CORBA is one such framework for interlanguage support, and the biocorba project is currently implementing a CORBA interface for bioperl.
- With biocorba, objects written within bioperl will be able to communicate with objects written in biopython and biojava (see the next subsection).
- For more information, see the biocorba project website.
- The Bioperl BioCORBA server and client bindings are available in the bioperl-corba-server and bioperl-corba-client bioperl CVS repositories respecitively.

5. Ensembl:

- Ensembl is an ambitious automated-genome-annotation project at EBI.
- Much of Ensembl\'s code is based on bioperl, and Ensembl developers, in turn, have contributed significant pieces of code to bioperl.
- In particular, the bioperl code for automated sequence annotation has been largely contributed by Ensembl developers.
- Describing Ensembl and its capabilities is far beyond the scope of this tutorial The interested reader is referred to the Ensembl website.

6. bioperl-db:

- Bioperl-db is a relatively new project intended to transfer some of Ensembl's capability of integrating bioperl syntax with a standalone Mysql database (http://www.mysql.com/) to the bioperl code-base.
- More details on bioperl-db can be found in the bioperl-db CVS directory at http://cvs.bioperl.org/cgi-bin/viewcvs/viewcvs.cgi/bioperl-db/?cvsroot=bioperl. It is worth mentioning that most of the bioperl objects mentioned above map directly to tables in the bioperl-db schema.
- Therefore object data such as sequences, their features, and annotations can be easily loaded into the databases, as in $loader->store($newid,$seqobj).
- Similarly one can query the database in a variety of ways and retrieve arrays of Seq objects.
- See biodatabases.pod, Bio::DB::SQL::SeqAdaptor, Bio::DB::SQL::QueryConstraint, and Bio::DB::SQL::BioQuery for examples.

7. Biopython and biojava:

- Biopython and biojava are open source projects with very similar goals to bioperl.
- However their code is implemented in python and java, respectively.
- With the development of interface objects and biocorba, it is possible to write java or python objects which can be accessed by a bioperl script, or to call bioperl objects from java or python code.
- Since biopython and biojava are more recent projects than bioperl, most effort to date has been to port bioperl functionality to biopython and biojava rather than the other way around.
- However, in the future, some bioinformatics tasks may prove to be more effectively implemented in java or python in which case being able to call them from within bioperl will become more important.
- For more information, go to the biojava http://biojava.org/ and biopython http://biopython.org/ websites.

4 Major categories of Bioinformatics Tools

These are 4 Major categories of Bioinformatics Tools used by students, Bioinformatics professionals and Computational Biologists.

There are data-mining software that retrieves data from genomic sequence databases and also visualization tools to analyze and retrieve information from proteomic databases.

These can be classified as homology and similarity tools, protein functional analysis tools, sequence analysis tools and miscellaneous tools. 

Here is a brief description of a few of these. Everyday bioinformatics is done with sequence search programs like BLAST, sequence analysis programs, like the EMBOSS and Staden packages, structure prediction programs like THREADER or PHD or molecular imaging/modelling programs like RasMol and WHATIF.

4 Major categories of Bioinformatics Tools are:

1. Homology and Similarity Tools:

- Homologous sequences are sequences that are related by divergence from a common ancestor.
- Thus the degree of similarity between two sequences can be measured while their homology is a case of being either true of false.
- This set of tools can be used to identify similarities between novel query sequences of unknown structure and function and database sequences whose structure and function have been elucidated.

2. Protein Function Analysis:

- These groups of programs allow you to compare your protein sequence to the secondary (or derived) protein databases that contain information on motifs, signatures and protein domains.
- Highly significant hits against these different pattern databases allow you to approximate the biochemical function of your query protein.

3. Structural Analysis:

- These sets of tools allow you to compare structures with the known structure databases.
- The function of a protein is more directly a consequence of its structure rather than its sequence with structural homologs tending to share functions.
- The determination of a protein's 2D/3D structure is crucial in the study of its function.

4. Sequence Analysis:

- This set of tools allows you to carry out further, more detailed analysis on your query sequence including evolutionary analysis, identification of mutations, hydropathy regions,
- CpG islands and compositional biases.
- The identification of these and other biological properties are all clues that aid the search to elucidate the specific function of your sequence.

5 principal requirements on the public data services

These are "5 principal requirements on the public data services".
public data services provides many services in health care, commerce, research etc.

5 principal requirements on the public data services are:

• Data quality -

Data quality has to be of the highest priority. However, because the data services in most cases lack access to supporting data, the quality of the data must remain the primary responsibility of the submitter.

• Supporting data - 

Database users will need to examine the primary experimental data, either in the database itself, or by following cross-references back to network-accessible laboratory databases.

• Deep annotation - 

Deep, consistent annotation comprising supporting and ancillary information should be attached to each basic data object in the database.

• Timeliness - 

the basic data should be available on an Internet-accessible server within days (or hours) of publication or submission.

• Integration - 

each data object in the database should be cross-referenced to representation of the same or related biological entities in other databases. Data services should provide capabilities for following these links from one database or data service to another.

4 reasons to use "SYNTAX function in SPSS Commands

These are 4 reasons to use "SYNTAX" in SPSS Commands.
The syntax is basically a text file where you can add comments and SPSS commands.

4 Reasons Everyone should use the syntax function in SPSS Commands are:

• It is a way of documenting and archiving everything you have done with the data material.

• It is easy to repeat parts or all of the analysis.

• Other people involved in the data material can easily understand what you have done and how you have done it.

• It saves an enormous amount of time.

Online Basic Definitions on Statistics

These are "Online Basic Definitions on Statistics". It can boost vocabulary in Bio-Statistics.
It can also enhance basic knowledge of Bio-Statisticstics.

1. What is "A Population"?

A population1 - It is any specific collection of objects of interest.

2. What is "A measurement and sample data"?

"A measurement" is a number or attribute computed for each member of a population or of a sample.

Skills of A Bioinformatician

Bioinformatics is vast field to develope "Skills of  A Bioinformatician".
A bioinformatician needs regularly gaining of knowledge of biology, biotechnology and computer at the same time. 
here, Skills of a Bioinformatician are given which clears thoughts of what skills of bioinformatics are needed by students of bioinformatics.

Skills of a Bioinformatician :

 According to the scientist working at companies such as Celera Genomics and Eli Lilly, the following "core requirements" for bioinformaticians:

1. Fairly deep background in some aspect of molecular biology. 
It can be biochemistry, molecular biology, molecular biophysics, or even molecular modeling, but without a core of knowledge of molecular biology is like, "run into brick walls too often."

2. Understanding the central dogma of molecular biology, how and why DNA sequence is transcribed into RNA and translated into protein is vital.

3. Should have substantial experience with at least one or two major molecular biology software packages, either for sequence analysis or molecular modeling. 
The experience of learning one of these packages makes it much easier to learn to use other software quickly.

4. Should be comfortable working in a command-line computing environment. Working in Linux or UNIX will provide this experience.

5. Should have experience with programming in a computer language such as Java, Unix, C, C++, RDBMS such as Oracle and Sybase, CORBA, Perl or Python, CGI and web scripting.